The Hebrew title for the book of Psalms is tehilim, roughly translated as “praises.” In some ways, this is an unusual title, as the largest single category of Psalms are laments. It is from the Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint that we get the term “psalmos” or song. The term is related to psalterion which is a translation of the Hebrew instruments the kinnor and nebel (lyre-like instruments), as the psalms were often accompanied by instruments. Sometimes the book is referred to as the Psalter, which comes from a 5th-century A.D. manuscript known as Codex Alexandrinus.
Author of Psalms
Authorship is a complex subject for Psalms as the book itself seems to claim a variety of different authors for the different psalms. These are usually found in the titles of individual psalms. However, it should be noted that when it says, for example, “a Psalm of David,” the preposition lamed translated here as “of” could actually be “to” or “for,” and so absolute certainty with authorship may not be possible. In addition, authorship titles might have been added later (the Septuagint adds 14 more author titles than we have in Hebrew manuscripts), and so may not have been original to the text. However, it is highly likely that many of these titles do denote authorship.
But there isn’t just one author of Psalms. While David was the probable author of many of the psalms (72 in the Hebrew text, with the New Testament attributing him one more, Psalm 2), there are other authors listed, such as the sons of Korah (Levitical singers), Asaph (a singer from the time of David and Solomon), Solomon, Moses, Ethan, and Heman (both of these last two come from Solomon’s day). Still, there are a great many of the psalms that have no authorship ascribed to them.
Date of Psalms
The book of Psalms covers much of the time period of the history of Israel. The earliest psalm that we know of is Psalm 90, by Moses, dating around 1440 B.C. There are psalms that are even exilic or post-exilic such as Psalm 137. There are even apocryphal psalms (those that are not part of the canon) that have been discovered with the Dead Sea Scrolls that would date into the period in between the Old and New Testaments. However, the majority of the psalms seem to focus on the Davidic/Solomonic period of Israel’s history.
“The majority of the psalms seem to focus on the Davidic/Solomonic period of Israel’s history.”
Outline of Psalms
The book of Psalms is divided into five “books,” probably due to the fact that the Torah is also five books. These books are 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106, and 107-150. But it should be noted that the arrangement that we presently have was not standardized for a while as different arrangements of the book of Psalms were found at Qumran (where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found). It seems that the first three books, at least from Psalm 2-89, were by the time of the Dead Sea Scroll community in their present order, but books 4 and 5 were still in a state of flux in their arrangement. It is thought that Psalm 1 was added as a later introduction to the whole book. There are also other “groupings” of Psalms in addition to the book format. You have “Hallel psalms” (Psalms 113-118, sung at Passover according to Jewish tradition) and “psalms of ascent” (Psalm 120-134, likely sung during pilgrimage to Jerusalem) which are clearly defined. There might also be a grouping of “God as King” psalms, particularly in psalms that comprise book 4.
Since the book of Psalms was written by different authors over a thousand years, it might be difficult to find any sort of thematic structure to the books. Yet, many scholars argue for a rudimentary organization of the book that highlights the rise of the Davidic monarchy and its subsequent failure and fall, at least through the first three books of the Psalter. Then with the fall of the earthly king, the God as King Psalms (for example, Psalm 98) occur directly after. This arrangement still leaves much of book four and all of book five without clear ties to the first three books of Psalms. It may be that most of books four and five should be simply seen as an appendix and may explain why they were not set in a particular order until later.
Summary of Psalms: “The book of Psalms is divided into five ‘books,’ probably due to the fact that the Torah is also five books.”
Purpose/Place of Psalms in the Canon
It is often thought that Psalms is a book of hymns for corporate worship. While this is true to an extent, many psalms are of a personal nature, such that the book of Psalms is part hymnbook and part Common Book of Prayer. Psalms is a book of interesting nature, as it is primarily humanity speaking to God, and yet, as part of the Canon, it also has elements in which God is revealing Himself to mankind (an obvious example is the amount of Messianic material in the book).
Others have described Psalms as a beautiful painting rather than an elaborate blueprint (like we find in a Pauline letter). However, while the emotional nature of the book of Psalms is apparent, there is a great amount of theology in Psalms. During the period of the dominance of the Catholic Church in Western Europe in the Middle Ages, Psalms was the only book of the Bible that was allowed to be in the vernacular of the people. It was a great choice as most theological topics like the sovereignty of God, His role as Creator and Sustainer, and his role as Redeemer are on display in Psalms.
Overview of Psalms
Since Psalms is of a different nature than other books (not a historical narrative or a carefully crafted letter written by an individual or two), it is more difficult to give a complete overview of this book. However, at this point giving some different psalm types can give a better understanding of the book of Psalms.
Hermann Gunkel, the great German Old Testament scholar, suggested that there were two primary types of psalms: hymns and laments. However, many see considerably more types of psalms. There are hymns, communal and individual thanksgivings, laments both communal (Psalm 137) and individual (including penitential psalms like Psalm 51), Royal Psalms (Psalm 2), Wisdom Psalms (Psalm 1), songs of Zion, Psalms of Ascent (songs sung on the way to feasts in Jerusalem), and Hallel psalms.
Summary of Psalms: “There are hymns, communal and individual thanksgivings, laments both communal and individual, Royal Psalms, Wisdom Psalms, songs of Zion, Psalms of Ascent, and Hallel psalms.”
Key Passages in Psalms
While Psalms is a large book (the largest in the Bible), it is certainly important to overview a few key passages of the book. Psalms is the most quoted book in the New Testament and therefore is shown to have a lot of passages with Messianic intent.
Psalm 2:7. The first passage of such a nature is Psalm 2:7 (ESV), “I will tell of the decree: The LORD said to me, ‘You are my Son; today I have begotten you.’” This passage leans heavily on 2 Samuel 7:14, the original promise of an enduring dynasty and even of one who would sit on the throne of David forever. Some struggle over the concept of “begotten” in the sense of this verse being applied to Christ (see Acts 4:25). However, begotten doesn’t necessarily involve begetting someone as much as declaring that one is the “inheritor of the estate.”
Psalm 16:10. Another theologically significant passage in Psalms is Psalm 16:10, which is considered by some as one of the clearest Old Testament passages concerning an afterlife. Typically, the Old Testament speaks of a shadowy existence in Sheol, but here it speaks of a body that is not allowed to decay. It hints at a physical resurrection along the lines of what is spoken about in Daniel 12:2. This verse is noted by Peter in Acts 2:27 as a clear reference to the resurrection of Christ, noting that the psalmist couldn’t be speaking of David as David’s tomb was still among them.
“This verse is noted by Peter in Acts 2:27 as a clear reference to the resurrection of Christ.”
Psalm 22. After Isaiah 53, Psalm 22 is the clearest depiction of the crucifixion in the Old Testament (e.g., the “Why have you forsaken me?” cry to God, the casting of lots for his clothing, hearing mockery such as “Let the Lord rescue him”). However, there is some controversy in regard to Psalm 22:16’s “they pierce my hands and feet.” The difficulty is the uncertainty with translation as it is uncertain both what the Hebrew root of the word is and what the word itself means. The NIV and other translations follow the LXX with “pierced,” but others have suggested “bind” or “consume” from different Hebrew roots. One of the most likely explanations is that the text has been divided wrongly (originally there were no spaces between letters in Hebrew manuscripts), and the word in question is not even a verb, but a noun with a preposition being translated as “like a lion” which fits well with the context of the rest of the passage. The verse is not quoted in the New Testament, and this lessens its probability of being a reference to the nails in the hands and feet of Christ.
Psalm 110. Psalm 110 is another significant Messianic passage in the Psalms. In fact, it is the single most referenced chapter from the Old Testament in the New Testament (Matthew 22:44, 26:64, Mark 12:36, 14:62, 16:19, Luke 20:42-44, 22:69, Acts 2:34-35, Romans 8:34, 1 Corinthians 15:25, Ephesians 1:20, Colossians 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 13, 5:6, 7:17, 21, 8:1, 10:12-13, 12:2). It was Luther’s favorite psalm as he wrote 120 pages on these seven verses. While the original context might have involved David’s continual presence on the throne, ultimately the New Testament speaks of this vassal ruler of God as being Christ. Perhaps one of the more famous usages of this passage is in Matthew 22:44 with Jesus’ question about whose son the Messiah is. As Jesus reasons, if the Messiah is merely the son of David, then why does David in Psalm 110 call Him “Lord”?
“As Jesus reasons, if the Messiah is merely the son of David, then why does David in Psalm 110 call Him ‘Lord’?”
Psalm 137:9. The last passage I will mention is not Messianic, but sometimes causes people difficulties because of the brutal nature of what is being described. Psalm 137:9 states, “Blessed shall be he who takes your little ones and dashes them against the rock!” (ESV). This is a horrible sentiment to contemplate, but several things need to be understood. First, the nature of psalms is that they are often speaking from human feelings and perspectives rather than God’s. Second, this sort of brutality was typical in the ancient world. Third, it is not fair to judge ancient people by revelation (the teachings of Jesus for example) that they had not yet received. Simply put, they had never heard “pray for your enemies” (Matthew 5:44).
Archaeological Insights
Since we aren’t aware of most of the historical situations from which each psalm arose (save for the historical titles), archaeology’s voice in illuminating the Psalms is a little more limited, but not absent. Depictions of musical instruments, often carved into the posts and columns of gates show us what such instruments looked like and the importance of music in ancient cultures. We also have examples of hymns from other cultures worshipping other deities, and these provide some insight into how ancient peoples expressed worship. Some of the closest parallels are from the hymns found at Ugarit (or Ras Shamra) on the Palestinian coast of the Mediterranean. These hymns date to around 1400 B.C. (around the time of Moses and Psalm 90).
For Further Reading
Psalms is a very popular book. A writer in the Middle Ages noted that even in his time there were more than 600 commentaries on the book of Psalms. A good introduction to the nature of Psalms plus an overview of a fair number of psalms can be found in C. Hassell Bullock’s Encounter the Book of Psalms. For a greater focus on the nature of Hebrew poetry, try Robert Alter’s commentary on the Psalms. However, if you are wanting the most detailed exegesis and theological discussion, you might try the 3-volume commentary by John Goldingay that tops out at about 2200 pages. While one may not agree with every conclusion in the above-mentioned works, each are from well-known scholars, and the degree of research and readability is top-notch.
